Patterned phonetic variability in second language speech: A gradual diffusion model. Carpenter, S. (2000). Which activities seem to offer deeper, more long-term success? I felt accepted by Thais, I felt a part of my neighborhood, I got to know people at the local markets, I rode busses and tuk-tuks with them. Is the course too easy? She employed three broad categories (or meta-strategies for general management and control) within which to consider strategic selfregulation (S2R): cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive strategies. Thus, L1 is a facilitating factor, and not just an interfering factor. Horwitz, E. (2001). Essex, UK: Longman. The Ceylonese curve their chins gracefully downward in an arc to the left shoulder, whereas Bengalis rock their heads rapidly from one shoulder to the other. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Describe.

An updated synopsis of research and practice in CLT around the world, with references and commentary on various manifestations of CLT. Power distance: (a.k.a. Did they provide minimal, direct correction or indirect comments on content? Nakatani, Y. 3965). Where is the comparable stockpile of research on nonverbal communication? C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS You may have felt helpless in the first few weeks or even months of learning an L2 when you were forced to interact with other speakers of the language. Register: Accounting for the context of the interaction in terms of style factors, including intimate, casual, deliberative, etc. Studium Generale, 23, 3087. . Or wait for a propitious (Spada, 1997) moment? New York: Harcourt Brace. are the locus of many options for snuffing out (no pun intended) whatever odors might otherwise offend our nostrils. (indirect speech) He could have went to the store yesterday. We are governed by the consequences of our behavior, and therefore Skinner felt we ought, in analyzing human behavior, to center on the effect of those consequences. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 247256. (Ed.). In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds. Do you know adults who have been extremely successful in learning a second language? Other research (N. Ellis, 2002; Gass & Mackey, 2002; Larsen-Freeman, 2002) has been equivocal on the issue of frequency. In D. Atkinson (Ed. To compensate, we can resort to what Smith (1975) called manufacturing meaningfulness (p. 162), that is, inventing artificial mnemonic devices to remember a list of items, perhaps for an upcoming examination. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 191224. This chapter has highlighted individual differences among learners across both cognitive and affective domains. Stevick, E. (1976a). A stand-alone sentence such as I didnt like that casserole could, depending on context, be agreement, disagreement, argument, complaint, apology, insult, or simply a comment. Ellis, R. (1994b). (2) Identity approaches are a combination of all three of the previously discussed maturational, cognitive, and sociocultural perspectives, and we therefore cannot overlook both age and mind in considering identity and its relation to SLA. Foreign Language Annals, 33, 535547. How many words or phrases should he teach Myra? I must never contradict my teacher; never to speak in class unless I am asked by teacher to speak; never call a teacher by first name; and respect older teachers even more than younger teacher. This focus is reflected throughout the book, culminating in my six perspectives (seen metaphorically as a color wheel) on SLA in the final chapter. LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: JOURNAL ENTRY 5 Note: See Chapter 1 for general guidelines for writing a journal on a previous or concurrent language learning experience. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 227249. The emergence of language. Morgan, B., & Clarke, M. (2011). In R. Lambert & B. (2) The pairs of types are clearly not dichotomous, as a person can easily manifest characteristics of both sides of the presumed continuum. Overcoming these difficulties requires a concerted strategic approach, and with it a degree of trial and error. While it is important to accentuate the positive in learners journeys to success, and not to become obsessed with error, transforming difficulty into success always seems to hinge on how learners perceive their own ability, how they process feedback around them, and how they manage to make their errors work for them and not against them. Oxford (2011b) and others (Zimmerman, 1990, 2000) prefer to capture such pursuits under the rubric of self-regulation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Isnt it wiser for teachers to be optimistic for all their students? Language, Culture and Curriculum, 15, 106116. (2011). An eloquent public speaker possesses and uses a sophisticated strategic competence. The latter was made to feel that he or she is the recipient of the formers findings and prognostications, with little to offer in return. LB: You mean someone will pick you up?

(See Chapter 5 for more discussion of left- and right-brain functioning.) One of these positions was mediation theory, (Osgood, 1953, 1957) in which meaning was accounted for by the claim that the linguistic stimulus (a word or sentence) elicits a mediating response that is covert and invisible, acting within the learner. The input hypothesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. But the Grammar Translation Method remarkably 16 CHAPTER 1 Language, Learning, and Teaching withstood attempts at the outset of the twentieth century to reform language teaching methodology, and to this day it remains a standard methodology for language teaching in many educational institutions. 2. Skinner was extremely methodical and empirical in his theory of learning, to the point of being preoccupied with scientific controls. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (1990). TESOL Quarterly, 16, 437448. Malden, MA: Blackwell. While many of his experiments were performed on lower animals, his theories had an impact on our understanding of human learning and on education. Consultative: A dialogue, formal enough that words are chosen with some care. In their arguments, behaviorists usually refer to surface-structure imitation, where a person repeats or mimics surface strings, attending to a phonological code rather than a semantic code. Modern Language Journal, 80, 431449. In W. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (Eds. An investigation of learning transfer in English-for-generalacademic-purposes writing instruction. Is FFI also effective in improving writing?, 275 5. Theory and practice of writing: An applied linguistic perspective. SLA and cognitive science. In P. Andersen & L. Guererro (Eds. Cummins, J. Wintergerst, A., & McVeigh, J. Choose two or CHAPTER 10 Sorting through Perspectives on SLA 311 three factors that interest you the most and write about your own language learning experience in relation to the topic. New York: Routledge. From Classroom Action to Autonomy Finally, it is important to note that style awareness and strategic action are not and should not be limited to the classroom. LoCastro, V. (1997). VanPatten, B., & Williams, J. For Pavlov the learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses. Rivers, W. (1964). (A) Divide the class into small groups. Language, power, and identity. And of course they may have many more orientations (Noels et al., 2000) than the few mentioned above! The younger the better maxim held up for Dewaele, Petrides, and Furnham (2008) as they found that students who were younger when they started learning an L2 have lower levels of FLA. 2. The consequence of such effects is referred to as proactive and retroactive inhibition. Carloss correct use of the regular past tense was incorrectly repeated by Kenji, although perhaps simply as a mistake, not an error. than men, suggesting less confidence in what they say. These trends will be described here in the form of three different perspectives, or schools of thought in the fields of linguistics and psychology. carla.umn.edu/maxsa/documents/langstratuse-inventory.pdf Comrie, B. [characterized by] researchers, like Arthurs knights, stumbling through the night (2009, p. 625). McNeill (1968, p. 416) found that a Japanese child produced the Japanese postposition ga far more frequently and more correctly than another contrasting postposition wa, even though her mother was recorded as using wa twice as often as ga. McNeill explained that ga as a subject marker may be of more importance, grammatically, to the child, or simply that ga is easier to pronounce. 3. Cook, V. (1995). Carlos Yorios (1976) Learner Variables In what might have been the first published attempt to bring together a comprehensive classification of variables of SLA, Carlos Yorio (1976), compiled a taxonomy to represent all of the individual factors that must be considered in describing the L2 learner (see Table 10.1). Tsui, A., & Tollefson, J. Language learning is, after all, an interactive process. In E. Hinkel (Ed. In W. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (Eds. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 783806. Measurement of Learning Styles A number of options are available for helping learners to identify their own styles, preferences, strengths, and weaknesses. 278 CHAPTER 9 Interlanguage FOR THE TEACHER: ACTIVITIES (A) & DISCUSSION (D) Note: For each of the Classroom Connections in this chapter, you may wish to turn them into individual or pair-work discussion questions. How would you help such students to overcome what you perceive as a block to reading efficiency? 6. It includes the ability to make repairs and to sustain communication through paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, avoidance, and guessing. How did her personality, cultural empathy, and positive outlook contribute to her success? Discourse analysis, whats that? So, how can you sort through all the findings and perspectives that have been presented here? Careful, systematic study of the role of personality in SLA has already led to a greater understanding of the language learning process and to improved language teaching designs. Curricula were organized around such functions as identifying, reporting, denying, declining an invitation, asking permission, apologizing, etc. And did the teacher encourage the use of strategies? If people recognize and understand differing worldviews, they will usually adopt a positive and open-minded attitude toward cross-cultural differences. Perlocutionary force: The actual effect the utterance has on the hearer. Her circle of friendship was almost exclusively Thai. A waiter asks if you would like more coffee, to which you respond, Im okay. The latter phrase functions as a response that says, no thank you. A sign in a church parking lot in a busy downtown area was subtle in form but direct in function: We forgive those who trespass against us, but we also tow them. That sign functioned effectivelyand humorouslyto prohibit unauthorized cars from parking there! Pragmatic development in a second language. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 6, 92102. Further, they posited eight possible degrees of difficulty for phonological systems and 16 degrees for grammar. As each item is applied to an activity that is either being planned or has already been taught, evaluation takes place and the activity thereby becomes a manifestation of a principled approach. Equilibration is defined as progressive interior organization of knowledge in a stepwise fashion (Sullivan, 1967, p. 12), and is related to the concept of equilibrium. (1969). Transfer of learning: Cognition, instruction, and reasoning. Seedhouse, P. (2004). ), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp. Abraham, R. (1985). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Language-learning strategies: Theory and perception. Gouin, F. (1880). Norton and Toohey (2011) explain that identity theory views the L2 learner as situated in a larger social world and variable over time and space. Instructed language learning and task-based teaching. MacIntyre, P., & Legatto, J. And Gao et al. If a child says want milk and a parent gives the child some milk, the operant is reinforced and, over repeated instances, is conditioned. Or suppose a group-work task in your textbook calls for a description of people from different countries. In B. Robinett & J. Schachter (Eds. We can then undertake the task of fitting the pieces together into what Kuhn called a paradigman interlocking design, a model, or a theory of SLA. By addressing such questions carefully and critically, you may actually achieve a surprising number of answers. Likewise, the principle of word order permutation allows one to perceive the difference between (3) and (4). The problem with the ESL/EFL terminology, as Nayar (1997, p. 22) pointed out, is that it seems to have created a worldview that being a native speaker of English will somehow bestow on people not only unquestionable competence in the use and teaching of the language but also expertise in telling others how English ought to be taught. As we saw in earlier chapters and in the preceding discussion, nativespeaker models do not necessarily exemplify the idealized competence that was once claimed for them. Language Arts, 67, 388398. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS Can you think of examples of how you would verbalize some of the seven functions in an L2 that you took in a classroom? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 162174. For example, a CHAPTER 6 Affective Factors 173 student might be an ENTJ or an ISTP or any of 16 possible types. . Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 635655. Some scholars have been less than sanguine about using metaphor in describing SLA because it gives us license to take ones claims as something less than serious hypotheses (Gregg, 1993, p. 291). C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS Can you think of examples, in a foreign language you have learned, of each of the above five determinants? A theory of language must include some accounting of the separation of these two broad categories. Guiora suggested that the language ego may account for the difficulties that adults have in learning a second language.

The acquisition of both styles and registers thus combines a linguistic and sociocultural learning process. Spielberger (1983, p. 1) described anxiety as a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system. More simply put, anxiety is associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, apprehension, or worry (Scovel, 1978, p. 134). Freedom from the restrictions of the scientific method to explore the unseen, unobservable, underlying, abstract linguistic structures being developed in the child 2. A single sentence can seldom be fully analyzed without considering its context, and since virtually no interactive communication is a single sentence, we string sentences together in interrelated, cohesive stretches of discourse. Reid, J. and sufficiency (is the list as a whole sufficient for a complete theory? Copyright 2022 Direct Textbook. Brain-based, neurolinguistic inquiry into both L1 and L2 acquisition remains a topic of intense interest (Schumann et al., 2004; Urgesi & Fabbro, 2009). We refer to the latter, of course, as learning, but the same elements of input, interaction, and feedback are present. Only once did he try to make conversation, but this caused people to laugh at him, so he became too embarrassed to continue. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ), A survey of applied linguistics (pp. Montrul (2008) described a good deal of heritage language acquisition as incomplete acquisition, caused by a number of intervening factors. By what means might a teacher specifically promote one or all three of the qualities of a CoP? The culture puzzle. Bell, D. (2003). Modern Language Journal, 56, 218222. The cognitive styles of reflection/impulsivity and field independence and ESL success. Ask the students if they agree. Gardner, H. (1999). An open-minded twenty-first century view is enriched by considering the benefits and drawbacks of each side of the age-old Greek triangle. New York: Routledge. The implication behind each factor in the list was that each factor was necessary to describe the L2 learning process, and in 1976 Yorio had the wisdom not to claim that together the factors were sufficient to map the terrain. As the childs language develops, those hypotheses are continually revised, reshaped, or sometimes abandoned. New York: Basic Books. Age, accent, and experience in second language acquisition. Robinson, P. (1997). Would you sound too childlike, or would they work as interim communication strategies? The last part of the twentieth century saw significant advances in the empirical study of the brain through such techniques as positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Once captivated by the lure of an immediate prize or praise, our dependency on those tangible rewards increases, even to the point that their withdrawal can then extinguish the desire to learn. 3. Urgesi, C., & Fabbro, F. (2009). Nuttall, C. (1996). Cook, V. (1997).

I no understand. Then, around the age of four or five, they begin to perceive a system in which the -ed morpheme is added to a verb, and at this point all verbs become regularized (breaked, drinked, goed). 227). Han, Z.-H., & Selinker, L. (2005). And a major step in learning how to facilitate is understanding the intricate web of principles that are spun together to affect how and why people learnor fail to learnan L2. ), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. This type of competence requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction. (Savignon, 1983, p. 37). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. A new item entirely, bearing little if any similarity to the native language item. Fred Genesee (1982) concluded that learners in informal contexts use greater right hemisphere processing than left. Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are not 4. Table 5.5 Sociocultural-interactive strategies and tactics S-I Strategy Examples of Tactics Interacting to learn Cooperating with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool information, or model a language activity Overcoming knowledge gaps Asking a teacher or other native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and/or examples, questioning for clarification, using memorized chunks of language to initiate or maintain communication Guessing intelligently Using linguistic clues in lexicon, grammar, or phonology to predict, using discourse markers to comprehend Generating conversation Initiating conversation with known discourse gambits, maintaining conversation with affirmations, verbal and nonverbal attention signals, asking questions Activating sociocultural schemata Asking questions about culture, customs, etc., reading about culture (customs, history, music, art) 128 CHAPTER 5 Individual Differences C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS The three lists above enumerate quite a number of tactics that learners have used to successfully learn foreign languages. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). In M. Zanna (Ed. Language Learning, 34, 4767. she saw [laughing] this is the funny part [laughing gleefully] when the tornado, the tornado blew her mother up she was sewing in a chair [still laughing] thats the funny part, and then, then a witch . Illustrate with examples. Elbow, P. (1973). BIBLIOGRAPHY 357 Simard, D., & Wong, W. (2004).

Participation framework: Identifying the participants in interaction, including gender, social class, status, familiarity, etc. Signal learning. Nurture and environment in this case are tremendously important, although it remains to be seen just how important parental input is as a proportion of total input. How so? For example, the principle of structure dependency states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence (such as words, morphemes, etc. In a study of returning Peace Corps volunteers who had remained in their assigned countries for two or more years, Day (1982) garnered some observational evidence of the coinciding of critical leaps in language fluency and cultural anomie. Eggins, S. (2004). (2000). In M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds. How do questions about EIL and global lingua francas relate to sociocultural issues of identity and CoP? 76 CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: JOURNAL ENTRY 3 Note: See Chapter 1 for general guidelines for writing a journal on a previous or concurrent language learning experience. How did the support of her parents contribute to her ultimate success? New York: Macmillan. His conclusion: positive appraisals of the language learning situation . CHAPTER 2 First Language Acquisition 41 The first two sentences rely on a structural grouping, characteristic of all languages, called phrase, or more specifically, noun phrase. Without awareness of such a principle, someone would get all tangled up in sentence (2). CHAPTER 5 Individual Differences 129 Table 5.6 Compensatory strategies Strategy Tactic Avoidance Avoiding a topic, concept, grammatical construction, or phonological element that poses difficulty Circumlocution Describing an object or idea with a definition (e.g., You know, that thing you open bottles withfor corkscrew) Approximation Using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible (e.g., ship for sailboat) Word coinage Creating a nonexistent L2 word based on a supposed rule (e.g., vegetable-ist for vegetarian) Nonverbal signals Mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation Prefabricated patterns Using memorized stock phrases, usually for survival purposes (e.g.,Where is . Chapelle, C., & Roberts, C. (1986). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, Ltd. Bialystok, E. (1978). See also Sociocultural factors cultural parameters, 176178 defining, 174175 fluidity of, 175 function of, 175 intercultural rhetoric, 223225 language and, 180184 in language classroom, 200201 second language acquisition and, 194 teaching intercultural competence, 196199 tips for teaching, 200201 394 Subject Index Culture acquisition, 186190 acculturation, 187188, 190 anomie and, 188 culture shock and, 187188 second culture learning, 186190 teaching intercultural competence and, 196200 Culture shock, 187188 Debilitative anxiety, 151 Deductive reasoning, 9798 Deep-structure imitation, 4344 Defense Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB), 99 Deliberative style, 222 Demotivation, 163164. Of course, teachers could take the nondirective approach too far, to the point that valuable time is lost in the process of allowing students to discover facts and principles for themselves. A framework for understanding cross-cultural issues in the English as a second language classroom. Learning styles and performance in second language tasks: Instrumentation matters. . Politeness and pragmatic competence in foreign language education.

What do we know about language teaching in the two or three millennia prior?

Newbury Park, CA: Sage. With the notable exceptions e-mails, phone texts, and tweets, these more common every day written genres usually imply conventional expectations of reasonably well-chosen wording with relatively few performance variables. Skehan, P. (1998). New York: M. Evans. London: Edward Arnold. Upon returning home Gouin discovered that his three-year-old nephew had, during that year, gone through that wonderful stage of first language acquisition in which he went from saying virtually nothing to becoming a veritable chatterbox in his native French. 8. The new handbook of second language acquisition. Individual differences in L2 learning. Grammatical 2. (Ed.). The interesting thing is that neither party is necessarily aware of what is wrong when the distance is not right. The monitor model: Some methodological considerations. A comparative study of English pluralization by native and non-native English speakers. Language Teaching, 23, 205213. Should a teacher capitalize on students high-intensity motives and also compensate on lesser motives? ), Psychology: A study of science (Vol. 8. From language proficiency to interactional competence. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2003). Multiple intelligences and language learning: A guidebook of theory, activities, inventories, and resources. Integrative motivation: Changes curing a year-long intermediate-level language. Modern Language Journal, 88, 331350. Ferris (2004) and Ferris and Hedgcock (2005) remain, with a few caveats, advocates of the importance of feedback in teaching writing.

Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, Ltd. Priven, D. (2002). It is said that a watched pot never boils. Is it possible that a language learner who is too consciously aware of what he or she is doing will have difficulty in learning the second language? Aptitude for learning a foreign language. What the good language learner can teach us. Learning to make different responses to many varying stimuli, which may resemble each other. We will turn to those sources later in this chapter. . This is the received message and includes the consequences of the delivered message. (A) Ask pairs to look at the three samples of speech on pages 21, 33, and 36 (Two by a five-year-old, and the other by a professional golfer). Modern Language Journal, 83, 319341. Ellis, N. (2003). Incomplete acquisition in bilingualism: Re-examining the age factor. It does virtually nothing to enhance a students communicative ability in the language. Wording is carefully planned in advance, intonation is somewhat exaggerated, and numerous rhetorical devices are utilized. Others (Scovel, 1988; Long, 1990b), however, noted flaws in Neufelds experiments. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS What are some examples of operant conditioning techniques that you have experienced in learning or teaching an L2? Writing, literacy, and applied linguistics. (Ed.). Gardner, R., Masgoret, A.-M., Tennant, J., & Mihic, L. (2004). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Lakoff, G. (1987).

Other . As you consider the issues, chapter by chapter, you will develop an integrated understanding of how people learnand sometimes fail to learnan L2. A hearer or reader should at this stage be able to discern what the intended meaning is. An Attention-Processing Model In the 1960s, cognitive psychology (Ausubel, 1968) made a big splash, representing a new era of thinking that appeared to rescue educational psychology from many of the dilemmas and shortfalls of behavioral theory. Error Analysis The fact that learners make errorsand that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learnerled to a surge of study, in the last few decades of the twentieth century, of learners errors, called error analysis (Corder, 1971, 1973; Burt & Kiparsky, 1972). Are there any intelligences that you underutilize?

In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds. In J. Reid (Ed. I began this chapter with an autobiographical account of my French learning experience at the age of five. (Ed.). Frequency effects and second language acquisition. Peters found that her subject manifested a number of Gestalt characteristics, producing wholes in the form of intonation patterns well before speaking the particular words that made up the sentences. (1979). What kinds of emitted responses have you experienced in learning or teaching a language? Meredith, K. (2011). Harlow, L. (1990). Finally, the rate of acquisition of both languages in bilingual children is slightly slower than the normal schedule for first language acquisition. ), Strategic interaction and language acquisition: Theory, practice, and research (pp. The frequency issue may be summed up by noting that nativists who claim that the relative frequency of stimuli is of little importance in language acquisition (Wardhaugh, 1971, p. 12), might in the face of evidence now available (N. Ellis, 2002), be more cautious in their claims. The text is available in print and eText formats. (1996). Language and languagesStudy and teaching. Mestre, J. P. ), Handbook of self-regulation (pp.