Pest Manag. 0000018164 00000 n endstream endobj 44 0 obj<. With a novel mode of action, Adorn is an excellent addition to fungicide rotations and plays a key role in resistance management programs to defeat downy mildew, Phytophthora and Pythium. 4E@$ 592*6glu^HXd-e3r 3@|f":e#YwJ\h)0?

Foliar Application: Use between 2 to 4 fl oz/100 gallons for foliar applications. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). 0000079639 00000 n In particular, zoospores stopped swimming, then gradually swelled and burst in a few minutes, at fluopicolide concentrations of 0.1, 1, and 10 g/ml, compared to dimethomorph. herbicide Sensitivity of Phytophthora capsici to fluopicolide in different developmental stages. Fluopicolide Fitness of Phytophthora capsici fluopicolide-resistant mutants and wild-type parents. Most of the resistant mutants showed similar favorable fitness in mycelial growth, sporangium and zoospore production, cystospore germination, and pathogenicity compared with their sensitive parents, with few exceptions. pesticides adverse effects

Greenhouse, lathhouse, and outdoor nurseries For instance, the resistance of P. capsici to phenylamide fungicides (e.g., metalaxyl or mefenoxam), used widely for many years around the world, has been reported universally (Luo et al., 1999; Lamour and Hausbeck, 2000; Parra and Ristaino, 2001; Silvar et al., 2006; Dunn et al., 2010; Quesada-Ocampo et al., 2011).

64, 172177. 0000009549 00000 n Science 290, 972977. 0000002741 00000 n 96, 15881600. 11:185. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00185.

16.764 5.568 Td (2001). 8 If error persists please contact us by phone on 1800 804 479, Sign up to receive information about products, news, services and events, I agree for my personal information to be handled in accordance with. Plant Dis. The resistance stability of fluopicolide-resistant isolates was assessed after 10 successive transfers on fungicide-free PDA plates.

8we6 The editor and reviewer's affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. Hausbeck, M. K., and Lamour, K. (2004). The zoospore release rates of the mutants were slightly higher or equivalent to the parents, except for RFB-12. )Fl.fI,jifj'-XfO@RxfiJ(4NkNHrh 1sLy+ f t3( 6N\ap"F mhh`h`````bw4p4@y )h`=@F`t0@@H J1i@l`2B;:a0$`\~:Hs800rj23izf]:2#.ns!{=/@M>i)l:Hc @ endstream endobj 253 0 obj <> endobj 221 0 obj <> endobj 40 0 obj <> endobj 41 0 obj <> endobj 42 0 obj <> endobj 43 0 obj <> endobj 44 0 obj [196 0 R 197 0 R 198 0 R 199 0 R 200 0 R 201 0 R 202 0 R 203 0 R 204 0 R 205 0 R 206 0 R 207 0 R 208 0 R 209 0 R 210 0 R 211 0 R 212 0 R 213 0 R 214 0 R 215 0 R 216 0 R 217 0 R 218 0 R] endobj 45 0 obj [184 0 R 185 0 R 186 0 R 187 0 R 188 0 R 189 0 R 190 0 R 191 0 R 192 0 R 193 0 R 194 0 R 195 0 R] endobj 46 0 obj [161 0 R 162 0 R 163 0 R 164 0 R 165 0 R 166 0 R 167 0 R 168 0 R 63 0 R 169 0 R 170 0 R 171 0 R 172 0 R 173 0 R 60 0 R 174 0 R null 175 0 R 176 0 R null null 177 0 R 178 0 R null null 179 0 R 180 0 R null null 181 0 R 182 0 R null null 52 0 R 63 0 R 53 0 R 63 0 R 54 0 R 60 0 R 55 0 R 60 0 R] endobj 47 0 obj [142 0 R 143 0 R 144 0 R 145 0 R 146 0 R 147 0 R 148 0 R 149 0 R 150 0 R 151 0 R 152 0 R 153 0 R 154 0 R 155 0 R 156 0 R 157 0 R 158 0 R 159 0 R 160 0 R] endobj 48 0 obj [124 0 R 125 0 R 126 0 R 127 0 R 128 0 R 129 0 R 130 0 R 131 0 R 132 0 R 133 0 R 134 0 R 135 0 R 136 0 R 137 0 R 138 0 R 139 0 R 140 0 R 141 0 R] endobj 49 0 obj [103 0 R 104 0 R 105 0 R 106 0 R 107 0 R 108 0 R 109 0 R 110 0 R 111 0 R 112 0 R 113 0 R 114 0 R 115 0 R 116 0 R 117 0 R 118 0 R 119 0 R 120 0 R 121 0 R 122 0 R 123 0 R] endobj 50 0 obj [83 0 R 84 0 R 85 0 R 86 0 R 87 0 R 88 0 R 89 0 R 90 0 R 91 0 R 92 0 R 93 0 R 94 0 R 95 0 R 96 0 R 97 0 R 98 0 R 99 0 R 100 0 R 101 0 R 102 0 R] endobj 51 0 obj [65 0 R 66 0 R 67 0 R 68 0 R 69 0 R 70 0 R 71 0 R 72 0 R 73 0 R 74 0 R 75 0 R 76 0 R 77 0 R 78 0 R 58 0 R 79 0 R null 80 0 R 81 0 R null null 56 0 R 58 0 R] endobj 52 0 obj <>]/P 63 0 R/Pg 3 0 R/S/Link>> endobj 53 0 obj <>]/P 63 0 R/Pg 3 0 R/S/Link>> endobj 54 0 obj <>]/P 60 0 R/Pg 3 0 R/S/Link>> endobj 55 0 obj <>]/P 60 0 R/Pg 3 0 R/S/Link>> endobj 56 0 obj <>]/P 58 0 R/Pg 14 0 R/S/Link>> endobj 57 0 obj <> endobj 58 0 obj <> endobj 14 0 obj <>/Font<>>>/Rotate 0/StructParents 7/Tabs/S/Type/Page>> endobj 25 0 obj [39 0 R] endobj 15 0 obj <>stream 0000035309 00000 n Figure 1. 0000035594 00000 n

WD^ J>_7e "#_EPFdr_>{J$ Then, mycelial agar plugs ( = 5 mm) from the culture edge were placed mycelia-side down on PDA plates ( = 15 cm, 70 mycelia plugs per petri dish) amended with 5 g/ml fluopicolide, approximately 10 times the minimal inhibited concentration of mycelial growth for sensitive isolates, which was tentatively considered to be a discriminatory concentration for identifying mutants of P. capsici insensitive to fluopicolide. Pathogenicity and virulence of Phytophthora capsici isolates from Taiwan on tomatoes and other selected hosts. Plant Dis. :wFY-[UYya|#0MP8) Resistant colonies were transferred to new fungicide-free PDA plates for later tests. doi: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00754.x. doi: 10.1002/ps.1494. 0000069823 00000 n Always read and follow label instructions. 2015-11-04T10:13:05.000-05:00 Use enough solution to wet the root zones of plants. fungicide adorn valent fungicides ornamental shipping Investigating the genetic structure of Phytophthora capsici populations. impatiens msu downy mildew nearby outbreaks reported michigan states infected leaf /R0 gs This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. FORMULATION: flowable 29, 14211427. The oomycete broad- host-range pathogen Phytophthora capsici. Cystospore germination was assessed by plating cystospore suspension on the surface of 1% agar plates at 25C in the dark after 12 h. More than 100 cystospores were examined under the microscope and considered germinated if the length of the germ tube was greater than the cystospore diameter. In pre-experiments, they showed good vitality at various developmental stages and were incubated on PDA plates for 3 days. Pythium spp. Acta Phytopathol.

90, 11351142. XL supervised the work. Container grown plants: Apply in volume as listed. 4141 S Tamiami Trl Ste 23 However, the specific mechanisms need to be further explored. 31801757) and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. Table 2. doi: 10.1007/s10681-007-9532-1, Granke, L. L., Quesada-Ocampo, L., Lamour, K., and Hausbeck, M. K. (2012). However, fungicides for the control of Phytophthora also present challenges because of the differences between oomycete and fungi, and resistance development (Lamour and Hausbeck, 2000; Lee et al., 2008; Randall et al., 2014). 791 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<9671B330F18541C5A76004A7DDB299D8><59D10477C2CAF24CAD48F5DCDC66AB17>]/Index[757 78]/Info 756 0 R/Length 147/Prev 311106/Root 758 0 R/Size 835/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream Eight fluopicolide-sensitive parental isolates were exposed to fluopicolide for inducing and selecting mutants, and a total of 44 fluopicolide-resistant mutants were obtained from six parental isolates: LP3, BYA5, JA8, Pc1723, 12-11, and A1 (Supplementary Table S2).

Wang et al. Fluopicolide xref Lamour, K. H., and Hausbeck, M. K. (2000). The mutants derived from BYA5, Pc1723, 12-11, and mutant RFJ-8 presented faster mycelial growth, but LP3-mutants, RFJ-4 and RFJ-7 presented slower mycelial growth at 25C. Univ. 13, 329337. Microbiol. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. Each treatment consisted of three repetitions. The results showed that fluopicolide had substantial activity against mycelial growth, sporangia formation, and zoospore release and motility, similar to previous studies (Lazzari et al., 2008; Jackson et al., 2010). The potential resistance risk for fluopicolide in P. capsici was evaluated. Adorn Fungicide prevents water mold, root rot, stem rot, crown rot and damping off caused by oomycete diseases in ornamental plants. Z., Guo, J. G., et al. Pembroke Park, FL33023 224 0 obj <>/Metadata 258 0 R/OpenAction 253 0 R/PageLayout/OneColumn/Pages 221 0 R/StructTreeRoot 40 0 R/Type/Catalog>> endobj 258 0 obj <>stream Table 5. Agric.

Check to be sure a specific use pattern is approved in your area before use. 88, 12921303. spectro wdg diseases prevention turf annual control fine fungicides (2014). infinito crop fungicide bayer brassicas guide XL and JW revised the manuscript. %PDF-1.5 % Due to the low inherent risk of P. capsici, a moderate to high resistance risk of P. capsici to fluopicolide is estimated in fields in China, according to the grading standards of Brent and Hollomon (2007). You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. All statistical analyses were conducted using DPS software ver. Giornate Fitopatologiche 2, 135140. : Alabama,Alaska,Arizona,Arkansas,California,Colorado,Connecticut,Delaware,District of Columbia,Florida,Georgia,Hawaii,Idaho,Illinois,Indiana,Iowa,Kansas,Kentucky,Louisiana,Maine,Maryland,Massachusetts,Michigan,Minnesota,Mississippi,Missouri,Montana,Nebraska,Nevada,New Hampshire,New Jersey,New Mexico,New York,North Carolina,North Dakota,Ohio,Oklahoma,Oregon,Pennsylvania,Puerto Rico,Rhode Island,South Carolina,South Dakota,Tennessee,Texas,Utah,Vermont,Virginia,Washington,West Virginia,Wisconsin,Wyoming, Unique Mode of Action (FRAC: Group 43)Valuable Program Rotation Tool, Proven Performance and Highly Systemic Movement Through the Plant, Broad Spectrum Soil-Borne and Foliar Control. Its generic name is 2,6-dichloro-N-[[3-chloro-5-(trifluoromethyl)-2-pyridinyl]methyl] benzamide (C14H8Cl3F3N2O) (Lazzari et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2019). Plant Dis. 0000034308 00000 n endstream endobj 3154 0 obj <. contact this location, Window Classics-Tampa Sensitivities of Phytophthora capsici to fluopicolide were investigated in vitro, with results showing that fluopicolide had strong inhibitory activities on each development stage of P. capsici, in particular on the motility of the zoospore.

(A) Chlorothalonil; (B) Cyazofamid; (C) Oxathiapiprolin; (D) Cymoxanil; (E) Azoxystrobin; (F) Dimethomorph; (G) Fluazinam; (H) Zoxamide; (I) Metalaxyl; (J) Fluopimomide. Resistance stability of fluopicolide-resistant mutants of Phytophthora capsici. HE*^@=d7qd9}("1z+rp0?!\ M,AZnMj=^ Y doi: 10.1002/ps.3646. A differential series of pepper (Capsicum annuum) lines delineates fourteen physiological races of Phytophthora capsici. strobe 0 Distribution of fluopicolide sensitivity of 146 Phytophthora capsici isolates. The baseline sensitivities to fluopicolide of 146 isolates obtained from 28 provinces in China were initially determined, and the 50% inhibition of mycelial growth (EC50) distribution was a unimodal curve with a mean of 0.17 g/ml. : fluopicolide (39.5%)

Fluopicolide-resistant isolates obtained by fungicide adaptation exhibited strong adaptive traits in different developmental stages. downy impatiens mildew reported nearby outbreaks michigan states msu

44, 8896. B. Adorn Fungicide may be used on container, bench or bed grown ornamentals in greenhouses, lathhouses, shadehouses or outdoor nurseries, on conifers including Christmas trees and on ornamentals grown in outdoor landscapes. Sporangial production and zoospore release of mutants and parental isolates were measured as described above (Miller, 1955; Lu et al., 2010).

Resistance to mefenoxam and metalaxyl among field isolates of Phytophthora capsici causing Phytophthora blight of bell pepper.

Kousik, C. S., and Keinath, A. P. (2007). 0000017777 00000 n 0000008307 00000 n Make sure to complete the CAPTCHA validation at the bottom of the form or your message won't be submitted. In addition, the sporangia malformation rates of mutants were significantly higher than those of the parents, where sporangia became significantly smaller and rounder. Plant Dis.

Population structure and resistance to mefenoxam of Phytophthora capsici in New York State. Phytophthora diseases worldwide. pythium rot guinea caused overwatering problems affected impatiens root young Advances in research on Phytophthora capsici on vegetable crops in the United States. No positive cross-resistance exists between fluopicolide and other anti-oomycete fungicides, except for fluopimomide. Phytophthora blight of pepper and its control in Korea. Tampa, FL33634 Citrus Quicksheet - Presidio Fungicide - 2018-PRD-8010-R2, Tobacco Quicksheet - Presidio Fungicide - 2019-PRD-8007, Vegetables Quicksheet - Presidio Fungicide - 2019-PRD-8003, Vegetables-AZ & CA Quicksheet - Presidio Fungicide - 2019-PRD-8004.

The superior ability of mutants to oversummer has not been reported before, which indicates that mutants can easily become dominant populations in the field, and the management of resistance cannot be ignored. 76, 486489. The fluopicolide-resistant isolates and their corresponding parental isolates were incubated on PDA media at 10, 18, 25, 30, and 37C. 2015-11-04T10:13:05.000-05:00 0000007671 00000 n ORNAMENTAL PLANTS Each combination of isolate and concentration consisted of three replicate plates. Sensitivity Baseline in Fungicide Resistance Research, and Management. doi: 10.1111/mpp.12124, Rekanovic, E., Potocnik, I., Stepanovic, M., Milijaevi-Mari, S., and Biljana, T. (2008). Plant Pathol. 834 0 obj <>stream mildew downy wnc fruits vegetable proven effective following control very

Roundup Ready PL Herbicide with PLANTSHIELD Technology, Gaucho 600 Red Flowable Seed Dressing Insecticide, Bollgard 3 with Roundup Ready Flex Cotton, TruFlex canola with Roundup Ready Technology, INFINITO is now registered in leafy vegetables, including brassica leafy vegetables, for downy mildew control, INFINITO is now registered in Brassicas for excellent white blister and downy mildew control, Broad spectrum fungicide provides flexibility in Tasmanian brassica crops, New fungicide drives better performance on key diseases in Tasmania, Cucurbits (field and protected cropping systems), Lettuce - leaf and head (field and protected cropping systems), Leafy vegetables - including brassica leafy vegetables.

Adobe PDF Library 11.0 Therefore, the current results based on a large number of isolates can be used to provide a baseline reference for monitoring resistance changes of P. capsici to fluopicolide in fields in China. q The isolate A1 was obtained from Michigan, and they were randomly selected from the laboratorys P. capsici strains library. All datasets generated for this study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. However, no resistant mutants were obtained from the other two parental isolates HNJZ10 and HD3, which might be due to sexual reproduction and genetic variation of those isolates (Hu et al., 2013; Pang et al., 2013; Miao et al., 2016). doi: 10.2298/pif0803183r. The first step is to establish a baseline sensitivity for pathogen populations containing a large number of isolates (Russell, 2004). banol fungicide bayer gal In particular, the inhibitory activity of fluopicolide on zoospore release was significantly better than that of dimethomorph. Leonian, L. H. (1922). Fluopicolide has been widely used for controlling a variety of oomycetes such as Plasmopara viticola, Phytophthora infestans, Pseudoperonospora cubensis, and Bremia lactucae (Lazzari et al., 2008; Rekanovic et al., 2008). This can cause severe crop yield reduction and economic losses under suitable environmental conditions (Hausbeck and Lamour, 2004; Lamour et al., 2012). Window Classics-Bonita Springs Sensitivity to fluopicolide and biological characteristics of resistant mutants of Phytophthora capsici in Chongqing. Diversity of Phytophthora capsici in Northwest Spain: analysis of virulence, metalaxyl response, and molecular characterization. According to this division, 30 intermediately resistant mutants and 14 highly resistant mutants made up the 44 fluopicolide-resistant mutants. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. The strains isolated from the inoculated pepper seedlings were still resistant to fluopicolide (data not shown). The assessment of resistance risk for all novel pesticides has been required as part of the regulatory process in China since 2012 (NY/T1859.2-2012). All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Phytopathology 45, 461462. strobe 2l curative fungicide broad systemic protectant spectrum properties h[r"-q0q*jX-#"G$"RxT} s\'N}1cjFN\cIJG%u<7u'x^Gl7p 7B%%$%:> F bpM8w$DM.Nxy!OQn`y8& 0{IC(C-afbpBkyZL55gxk~B5!F}D4A (>,\gl+G8/'V#!u^? 77, 588591.

Fluopicolide [97.2%, active ingredient (AI), Bayer Crop Science, Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China], zoxamide (97% AI, Gowan Company, United States), dimethomorph (95% AI, Gowan Company, United States), azoxystrobin (98% AI, Syngenta Biotechnology, Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China), fluazinam (95% AI, Japan Ishihara, Co., Ltd.), cyazofamid (98.4% AI, Mingde Lida Agricultural Technology, Co., Ltd., Beijing, China), metalaxyl (95% AI, Heben Technology, Co., Ltd., Zhejiang, China), chlorothalonil (98% AI, Henan Chunguang Agrochemical, Co., Ltd., Henan, China), oxathiapiprolin (96.7% AI, DuPont Crop Protection, Wilmington, DE, United States), and fluopimomide (LH-2010A, 98.6% AI, Shandong Joint Pesticide, Co., Ltd., Shandong, China) were respectively dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) for stock solutions (104 g/ml) and stored at 4C. fungicide bayer infinito concentrate mkds protective healing ml uuid:4d46dd25-38a7-4aae-b892-aeb4a5d78166 In vitro antimicrobial and in vivo antioomycete activities of the novel antibiotic thiobutacin. H10D~N1%i]+vR;DDAD*h_y">Pz"P+x\JiWmO$Hp,v h/tHk*QNh J? doi: 10.1094/PDIS-05-11-0372, Lu, X. H., Zhu, S. S., Bi, Y., Liu, X. L., and Hao, J. J. Pflanzenschutz Nachr. endstream endobj 761 0 obj <>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]>>/Subtype/Form/Type/XObject>>stream

It provides excellent efficacy on several pathogen developmental stages such as mycelial growth, sporangial production, zoospore release and motility, and cyst germination (Lazzari et al., 2008; Jackson et al., 2010). (2011), and a few reports have described the sensitivity of P. capsici to fluopicolide in China using a limited number of isolates obtained from fewer than five provinces (Zhai et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2019). Wild type sensitivity and mutation analysis for resistance risk to fluopicolide in Phytophthora capsici. hbbd```b``" For tobacco, Presidio Fungicide is targeted chemistry that protects tobacco threatened by black shank and blue mold. \`@h*)O``{C/[i~o*-\Bid.C:*OADxPF[O2Nls)3[7AH{xWKK+$$.S"OS No differences existed in zoospore production between resistant mutants and their corresponding sensitive parental isolates, except for mutant RFL-3, which produced significantly fewer zoospores than wild-type parent LP3.

We use cookies to give you the best online experience. lg1|)X fw2_AHo@j0w"L [ The isolate A1 was obtained from Michigan and used for comparison with Chinese isolates. Additionally, the cross-resistance result indicated that the sensitivity of fluopicolide did not correlate with other oomycete fungicides, apart from fluopimomide (LH-2010A).

At present, the resistance risk of P. capsici to fluopicolide in Michigan in the United States has been analyzed by Lu et al. Phytophthora Diseases Worldwide. PACKAGE SIZE: 12 x 1 qt bottle /Form Do

Front. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00185/full#supplementary-material, Baldauf, S. L., Roger, A. J., WenkSiefert, I., and Doolittle, W. F. (2000). (2016).

2015-11-04T10:12:03.000-05:00 43 46 Miami, FL33155 @d`If%mm. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO-01-13-0016-R. Hwang, B. K., and Kim, C. H. (1995).

The mutants derived from A1 and LP3, as well as mutants RFJ-4, RFJ-9, and RFJ-12, grew more slowly than their parents, and the hyphal growth rates of mutants RFB-1, RFJ-8, and RF1723-6 were higher than their parents at 18C. A kingdom level phylogeny of eukaryotes based on combined protein data. To plot the sensitivity of fluopicolide against those of 10 oomycete fungicides, EC50 values were transformed to relative logarithm values, and Spearman correlation analysis was conducted. 0 Overall, the FSC values showed relatively stable fluopicolide resistance of the mutants. infinito sc fungicide nexles litru fongicides kartoffel (59) Tj propamocarb clorhidrat substanta At a concentration of 10 g/ml, all zoospores lost motility and then gradually lysed after 10 min.

Please enter a phone number in the format 000-000-0000. See label for complete application precautions and restrictions, EPA REG. 3164 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<8889BBAB143CF14F8A130D039A177C50>]/Index[3153 23]/Info 3152 0 R/Length 76/Prev 610743/Root 3154 0 R/Size 3176/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream This study determined the sensitivity of P. capsici to fluopicolide and found that fluopicolide had substantial activity against mycelial growth, sporangia formation, and zoospore release and motility. 0000084737 00000 n hb```,g@( 4925 SW 74th Ct Black Shank, Blue Mold, Downy Mildew, Pythium, Phytophthora, Phytophthora Foot Rot, Root Rot. 95, 15351541. Fluopicolide is a benzamide plant fungicide discovered and patented by AgrEvo UK Limited (since 2002 being a part of Bayer Crop Science) in 1999.

Wang, Q. Y., Ma, G. H., Yin, X. W., Lu, Y. Y., Zhang, X. C., and Xu, Y. D. (2019). (2011) previously determined the biological phenotypes of five resistant mutants and their corresponding five parents. FRAC NUMBER: 43 ZX wrote the main manuscript. Containing two modes of action for foliar application, INFINITO is also an ideal resistance management alternative for growers, INFINITO has two active ingredients that work together to deliver the ultimate protection against downy mildew. This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. The fungicide resistance risk assessment is essential to prevent or delay the development of fungicide resistance (Grimmer et al., 2014) and is mainly focused on the establishment of baseline sensitivity of sensitive pathogens, selection of resistant mutants, and evaluation of mutants resistance level, stability, and fitness, as well as the cross-resistance between the target fungicide and several others (Miao et al., 2016).

3153 0 obj <> endobj The disease severity of all seedlings was rated after 7 days on a scale of 05: 0 = healthy plant, 1 = leaf yellowing and no stem necrosis, 2 = minor stem necrosis, 3 = moderate stem necrosis and some wilting, 4 = severe stem necrosis and severe wilting, and 5 = dead plant (Kim and Hwang, 1992; Hartman and Huang, 1993).